Article Figures & Tables
Figures
- Figure 1:
Percentage point contribution of explained and unexplained components to the differences in psychological distress scale and the prevalence of lifetime suicidal ideation and suicide plan between non-Indigenous and Indigenous adults living off-reserve in Canada. Percentage point contributions of explained component were calculated by dividing the sum of the contribution of all variables in each category by the total difference in the corresponding mental health outcome. Some percentages do not add up to 100 as a result of rounding.
Tables
Variable % or mean ± SD Total Women Men Non-Indigenous Indigenous p value Non-Indigenous Indigenous p value Non-Indigenous Indigenous p value Outcome 10-item Kessler Psychological Distress Scale score 15.1 ± 5.1 16.1 ± 5.9 < 0.001 15.3 ± 5.3 16.5 ± 6.4 0.007 14.8 ± 4.8 15.6 ± 5.5 0.03 Lifetime suicidal ideation 9.2 16.8 < 0.001 9.7 19.1 < 0.001 8.7 14.6 0.005 Lifetime suicide plan 2.3 6.8 < 0.001 2.6 7.7 0.008 2.0 5.9 0.006 Demographic variables* Age, yr 47.4 ± 17.9 41.3 ± 15.5 < 0.001 48.0 ± 18.2 41.7 ± 15.0 < 0.001 46.7 ± 17.6 41.1 ± 16.0 < 0.001 Marital status Married or common law 62.1 59.7 0.4 60.6 57.6 0.4 63.6 61.6 0.6 Divorced or widowed 13.4 11.5 0.2 17.7 16.1 0.5 9.1 7.1 0.2 Single 24.5 28.9 0.07 21.7 26.3 0.09 27.3 31.3 0.3 Socioeconomic variables* Equivalized household income, $† 54 426 ± 87 062 46 550 ± 37 582 < 0.001 52 076 ± 111 102 44 482 ± 32 837 0.01 56 846 ± 51 634 48 488 ± 41 485 0.002 Education Less than high school 13.9 20.8 0.002 13.4 17.4 0.07 14.4 24.0 0.008 High school 17.4 16.4 0.6 17.7 20.3 0.5 17.2 12.6 0.06 Some postsecondary 7.5 7.0 0.7 7.5 8.4 0.6 7.5 5.7 0.2 Bachelor’s degree or higher 61.2 55.8 0.06 61.5 53.9 0.04 60.9 57.7 0.4 Employment status Employed 61.9 57.6 0.1 55.9 56.1 > 0.9 68.2 58.9 0.02 Unemployed 28.9 34.5 0.03 33.7 37.7 0.3 24.0 31.6 0.03 Other employment status 9.2 7.9 0.4 10.4 6.2 0.003 7.9 9.5 0.4 Homeownership Owner 77.1 66.2 < 0.001 76.4 62.7 < 0.001 77.8 69.4 0.004 Renter 22.9 33.8 < 0.001 23.6 37.3 < 0.001 22.2 30.6 0.004 Household arrangement Single person 16.1 12.9 0.02 17.4 12.3 0.005 14.8 13.5 0.5 Couple with no child 32.1 25.7 0.006 30.5 29.1 0.7 33.7 22.5 0.001 Couple with child or children younger than 25 yr 31.3 33.7 0.45 30.8 24.4 0.01 31.7 42.4 0.03 Separated with child younger than 25 yr 5.1 7.6 0.04 6.7 12.1 0.009 3.5 3.3 0.9 Other household compositions 15.4 20.2 0.02 14.6 22.2 < 0.001 16.0 18.2 0.5 Geographical factors* Urbanicity Urban 77.6 78.3 0.8 21.1 20.7 0.9 23.8 22.7 0.7 Rural 22.4 21.7 0.8 78.9 79.3 0.9 76.2 77.3 0.7 Geographic region Atlantic‡ 8.9 9.5 0.6 9.1 9.4 0.8 8.7 9.6 0.5 Quebec 26.9 9.5 < 0.001 27.4 10.0 < 0.001 26.4 9.0 < 0.001 Ontario 35.3 32.2 0.3 35.5 26.3 0.03 35 37.6 0.6 Prairie‡ 17.5 33.7 < 0.001 16.9 37.5 < 0.001 18.2 30 < 0.001 British Columbia 11.5 15.2 0.07 11.2 16.8 0.06 11.7 13.6 0.5 Observations 17 367 933 9535 514 7832 419 Represented population 17 818 298 754 982 9 037 405 365 300 8 780 893 389 682 Note: SD = standard deviation.
↵* Explanatory variables.
↵† Annual household income equivalized by dividing it by the square root of household size as per the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development publications (29) and logged to correct for skewness in analyses.
↵‡ Atlantic includes the provinces of Newfoundland and Labrador, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick; Prairie includes the provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta.
- Table 2:
The coefficients and marginal effects obtained from the ordinary least squares and logistic models for psychological distress scale, lifetime suicidal ideation and lifetime suicide plan*
Determinants Psychological distress scale Lifetime suicidal ideation Lifetime suicide plan Total coefficients Women coefficients Men coefficients Total marginal effects Women marginal effects Men marginal effects Total marginal effects Women marginal effects Men marginal effects Indigenous identity (Ref: Indigenous) Non-Indigenous −0.38 (0.21 to −0.97) −0.56 (0.32 to −1.43) −0.18 (0.61 to −0.96) −4.12 (−2.06 to −6.18) −5.05 (−2.01 to −8.09) −3.35 (−0.57 to −6.13) −2.05 (−1.13 to −2.97) −2.58 (−1.01 to −4.15) −1.49 (−0.49 to −2.49) Demographic variables Sex (Ref: female) Male −0.45 (−0.7 to −0.20) −1.05 (−2.38 to 0.28) −0.58 (−1.31 to 0.15) Age, yr −0.05 (−0.07 to −0.04) −0.07 (−0.08 to −0.05) −0.04 (−0.05 to −0.03) −0.11 (−0.17 to −0.05) −0.12 (−0.2 to −0.04) −0.09 (−0.17 to −0.01) −0.02 (−0.04 to 0.01) 0.01 (−0.05 to 0.03) −0.03 (−0.05 to −0.01) Marital status (Ref: married or common law) Divorced or widowed 0.03 (−0.56 to 0.61) −0.23 (−1.09 to 0.63) 0.41 (−0.43 to 1.26) −0.35 (−3.23 to 2.53) −1.04 (−4.9 to 2.82) 0.96 (−2.92 to 4.84) −0.40 (−1.69 to 0.89) −1.19 (−2.93 to 0.55) 0.34 (−1.23 to 1.91) Single 0.03 (−0.49 to 0.56) −0.53 (−1.33 to 0.28) 0.57 (−0.11 to 1.24) 0.20 (−2.37 to 2.77) −1.09 (−4.27 to 2.09) 1.41 (−2.37 to 5.19) 0.17 (−0.91 to 1.25) −0.23 (−1.48 to 1.02) 0.36 (−1.17 to 1.89) Socioeconomic variables Log equivalized household income, $ −0.74 (−0.92 to −0.56) −0.83 (−1.08 to −0.57) −0.65 (−0.92 to −0.39) −1.09 (−1.83 to −0.35) −1.25 (−2.31 to −0.19) −1.05 (−2.07 to −0.03) −0.39 (−0.68 to −0.10) −0.52 (−0.97 to −0.07) −0.31 (−0.62 to 0) Education (Ref: less than high school) High school −0.56 (−1.11 to −0.02) −0.70 (−1.63 to 0.24) −0.44 (−1.05 to 0.17) −2.71 (−5.45 to 0.03) −3.33 (−7.50 to 0.84) −1.96 (−5.45 to 1.53) −1.21 (−2.48 to 0.06) −1.36 (−3.83 to 1.11) −1.02 (−2.04 to 0) Some postsecondary 0.39 (−0.29 to 1.07) −0.43 (−1.52 to 0.66) 1.15 (0.37 to 1.93) −2.92 (−6.37 to 0.53) −2.65 (−7.98 to 2.68) −2.79 (−7.02 to 1.44) −0.95 (−2.38 to 0.48) −1.40 (−4.22 to 1.42) −0.46 (−1.69 to 0.77) Bachelor’s degree or higher −0.37 (−0.86 to 0.12) −0.60 (−1.49 to 0.29) −0.14 (−0.60 to 0.32) −2.01 (−4.52 to 0.50) −1.27 (−5.21 to 2.67) −2.54 (−5.56 to 0.48) −0.31 (−1.56 to 0.94) −0.30 (−2.91 to 2.3) −0.26 (−1.04 to 0.52) Employment status (Ref: employed) Unemployed 0.45 (0.14 to 0.76) 0.30 (−0.13 to 0.74) 0.62 (0.22 to 1.02) 0.02 (−1.53 to 1.57) −0.09 (−2.42 to 2.24) −0.14 (−2.22 to 1.94) 0.15 (−0.61 to 0.91) −0.41 (−1.78 to 0.96) 0.6 (−0.13 to 1.33) Other employment status 1.69 (1.15 to 2.22) 1.81 (1.01 to 2.6) 1.66 (0.95 to 2.38) −1.73 (−4.69 to 1.23) −2.87 (−7.08 to 1.34) −0.49 (−4.51 to 3.53) −0.15 (−1.50 to 1.20) −0.87 (−3.44 to 1.70) 0.54 (−0.55 to 1.64) Homeownership (Ref: owner) Renter 0.62 (0.28 to 0.96) 0.66 (0.20 to 1.12) 0.58 (0.09 to 1.06) 2.62 (1.11 to 4.13) 3.51 (1.24 to 5.78) 1.57 (−0.45 to 3.59) 0.46 (−0.25 to 1.17) 0.74 (−0.36 to 1.84) 0.17 (−0.75 to 1.09) Household arrangement (Ref: single person) Couple with no child −0.10 (−0.65 to 0.45) −0.03 (−0.86 to 0.80) −0.17 (−0.89 to 0.56) −2.87 (−5.56 to −0.18) −2.67 (−6.20 to 0.86) −2.86 (−6.72 to 1.00) −1.41 (−2.64 to −0.18) −1.74 (−3.39 to −0.09) −1.08 (−2.65 to 0.49) Couple with a child or children < 25 yr −0.43 (−0.98 to 0.12) −0.71 (−1.51 to 0.10) −0.10 (−0.86 to 0.65) −3.85 (−6.57 to −1.13) −3.32 (−6.99 to 0.35) −4.14 (−7.98 to −0.30) −1.59 (−2.82 to −0.36) −1.58 (−3.54 to 0.38) −1.50 (−2.93 to −0.07) Separated with a child or children < 25 yr 0 (−0.65 to 0.65) −0.06 (−0.90 to 0.79) 0.13 (−0.84 to 1.11) −2.09 (−5.05 to 0.87) −0.74 (−4.80 to 3.32) −4.37 (−8.49 to −0.25) −0.71 (−1.77 to 0.35) −0.08 (−1.71 to 1.55) −1.67 (−3.2 to −0.14) Other household compositions 0.70 (0.21 to 1.19) 0.57 (−0.07 to 1.21) 0.92 (0.15 to 1.68) −2.20 (−4.02 to −0.38) −2.43 (−5.33 to 0.47) −1.90 (−4.17 to 0.37) −0.96 (−1.78 to −0.14) −1.16 (−2.73 to 0.41) −0.70 (−1.48 to 0.08) Geographical factors Urbanicity (Ref: rural) Urban 0.06 (−0.28 to 0.39) 0.03 (−0.46 to 0.52) 0.11 (−0.33 to 0.54) 1.11 (−0.60 to 2.82) 0.01 (−2.52 to 2.54) 2.25 (0.09 to 4.41) 0.49 (−0.37 to 1.35) 0.47 (−1.00 to 1.94) 0.45 (−0.33 to 1.23) Geographic region (Ref: Ontario) Atlantic† −0.17 (−0.53 to 0.18) −0.01 (−0.54 to 0.53) −0.34 (−0.78 to 0.11) −0.59 (−2.45 to 1.27) −2.05 (−4.89 to 0.79) 0.76 (−1.61 to 3.13) −0.19 (−0.99 to 0.61) −0.81 (−2.12 to 0.5) 0.34 (−0.52 to 1.20) Quebec −0.09 (−0.45 to 0.27) 0.38 (−0.19 to 0.94) −0.58 (−1.02 to −0.13) 1.12 (−0.92 to 3.16) −0.26 (−3.34 to 2.82) 2.51 (−0.04 to 5.06) 0.86 (−0.16 to 1.88) 0.75 (−0.97 to 2.47) 0.91 (0.08 to 1.74) Prairie† 0.13 (−0.22 to 0.47) 0.17 (−0.34 to 0.68) 0.10 (−0.37 to 0.57) 1.76 (0.07 to 3.45) 0.27 (−2.14 to 2.68) 3.13 (0.80 to 5.46) 0.71 (−0.11 to 1.53) −0.09 (−1.19 to 1.01) 1.31 (0.21 to 2.41) British Columbia −0.13 (−0.51 to 0.25) 0.02 (−0.53 to 0.58) −0.25 (−0.76 to 0.26) 1.91 (−0.05 to 3.87) 1.52 (−1.34 to 4.38) 2.21 (−0.53 to 4.95) 0.46 (−0.52 to 1.44) 0.24 (−1.21 to 1.69) 0.63 (−0.35 to 1.61) Constant 15.6 (13.19 to 18.01) 17.47 (13.94 to 21) 13.18 (10 to 16.36) Observations 18 300 10 049 8251 18 300 10 049 8251 18 300 10 049 8251 Note: Ref. = reference category in the ordinary least squares and logistic model estimations.
↵* Coefficients and marginal effects are calculated at the means of the independent variables. Marginal effects are multiplied by 100 for ease of readability; 95% confidence intervals are presented in parentheses.
↵† Atlantic includes the provinces of Newfoundland and Labrador, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick; Prairie includes the provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta.
- Table 3:
Decomposition of the differences in psychological distress scale and the prevalence of lifetime suicidal ideation and suicide plan between non-Indigenous and Indigenous adults living off-reserve in Canada*
Variable Psychological distress scale Lifetime suicidal ideation Lifetime suicide plan Total Women Men Total Women Men Total Women Men Differences explained by characteristics† Sex 0.0104 0.0002 0.0002 Age −0.3250 −0.4360 −0.2150 −0.0079 −0.0082 −0.0071 −0.0016 −0.0002 −0.0030 Marital status 0.0002 0.0244 −0.0146 −0.0001 0.0005 −0.0003 −0.0002 −0.0001 −0.0001 Income −0.1320 −0.1320 −0.1330 −0.0025 −0.0027 −0.0026 −0.0011 −0.0016 −0.0008 Education −0.0230 −0.0247 −0.0053 −0.0023 −0.0003 −0.0034 −0.0007 0.0001 −0.0010 Employment status −0.0023 0.0687 −0.0745 −0.0001 −0.0016 0.0001 0.0000 −0.0003 −0.0011 Home ownership −0.0676 −0.0816 −0.0542 −0.0036 −0.0056 −0.0022 −0.0008 −0.0018 −0.0004 Household arrangement −0.0304 −0.0820 −0.0331 0.0008 −0.0003 0.0011 0.0000 −0.0004 0.0001 Urbanicity −0.0002 −0.0001 −0.0007 −0.0001 0.0000 −0.0003 −0.0001 0.0000 −0.0001 Geographic region −0.0251 0.0443 −0.1070 −0.0022 −0.0028 −0.0001 −0.0002 0.0014 −0.0004 –Sum explained −0.5950‡ −0.6190‡ −0.6370‡ −0.0179‡ −0.0209‡ −0.0149‡ −0.0042‡ −0.0030 −0.0068§ Differences not explained by the characteristics (sum unexplained) −0.3970 −0.5890 −0.1770 −0.0577‡ −0.0730‡ −0.0441§ −0.0404‡ −0.0477‡ −0.0329§ Differences: non-Indigenous−Indigenous −0.992‡ −1.208‡ −0.814§ −0.0757‡ −0.0939‡ −0.0590‡ −0.0448‡ −0.0507‡ −0.0396‡ ↵* Detailed results of decomposition analyses can be found in Appendices 4, 5 and 6 (available at www.cmajopen.ca/content/9/1/E215/suppl/DC1).
↵† Negative (positive) value for each characteristic indicates the absolute value of the difference that could have been reduced (increased) if that characteristic for the Indigenous population were made to be identical to that of the non-Indigenous population. For example, if the annual equivalized income for Indigenous adults increased to the level of the non-Indigenous population, the difference in the psychological distress scale between the 2 groups could have been decreased by 0.1320 points.
↵‡ p < 0.01.
↵§ p < 0.05.
In this issue
Article tools
