Article Figures & Tables
Figures
- Figure 1
Partial proportional attributable risk for individual risk factors for the development of gestational diabetes mellitus among South Asian women. Error bars represent 95% confidence intervals. Note: BMI = body mass index.
Tables
Foods consumed in greater quantity in low-quality diet Foods consumed in greater quantity in high-quality diet Meat, meat dishes, processed meats, organ meats, poultry Vegetables, raw and cooked Fish, seafood Legumes (daals) Rice Nuts and seeds Fried foods Low-fat dairy products (low-fat and fermented) Refined grains (breads and cereals) Whole grains (breads and cereals) Fast foods Sweets Eggs Fruits Characteristic Mean ± SD† p value Gestational diabetes‡
n = 365No gestational diabetes
n = 641Age, yr 31.2 ± 4.0 29.7 ± 3.8 < 0.001 Length of time in Canada, yr 8.8 ± 7.5 8.2 ± 7.9 0.2 Duration of pregnancy at study enrolment, wk 26.8 ± 2.1 26.6 ± 1.6 0.1 Parity, no. (%) Primiparous 123 (33.7) 283 (44.1) < 0.001 Multiparous 236 (64.6) 343 (53.5) Unknown 6 (1.6) 15 (2.3) Smoked during pregnancy, no. (%) 0 (0.0) 2 (0.3) 0.5 Vegetarian, no. (%) 125 (34.5) 243 (38.1) 0.2 Diet quality score 2.2 ± 1.4 2.5 ± 1.3 0.002 Low diet quality, no. (%) 121 (33.4) 145 (22.9) < 0.001 Time spent engaged in active sport per wk, h 1.4 ± 2.2 1.6 ± 2.5 0.4 Physical activity in pregnancy, no. (%) Sedentary 97 (26.6) 139 (21.7) 0.2 Mild exercise 202 (55.3) 373 (58.2) Moderate exercise 64 (17.5) 128 (20.0) Unknown 2 (0.5) 1 (0.2) Family history of diabetes, no. (%) 191 (52.5) 228 (35.7) < 0.001 Social disadvantage index, no. (%) High 47 (12.9) 90 (14.0) 0.9 Moderate 118 (32.3) 213 (33.2) Low 145 (39.7) 251 39.2) Unknown 55 (15.1) 87 (13.6) Currently employed, no. (%) 196 (54.0) 349 (54.5) 0.9 Annual household income ≥ $50 000, no. (%) 143 (46.0) 242 (43.6) 0.5 High school education, no. (%) 361 (99.4) 638 (99.5) 0.9 Prepregnancy weight, kg 64.9 ± 12.2 61.3 ± 11.8 < 0.001 Height, cm 161.6 ± 6.2 162.5 ± 6.3 0.02 Prepregnancy body mass index 24.9 ± 4.6 23.2 ± 4.3 < 0.001 Sum of skinfold measurements at enrolment, mm 52.3 ± 12.3 47.9 ± 12.4 < 0.001 Triceps skinfold thickness at enrolment, mm 28.5 ± 6.7 26.5 ± 6.8 < 0.001 Subscapular skinfold thickness at enrolment, mm 24.1 ± 6.6 21.5 ± 6.5 < 0.001 Glucose area under the curve, mmol/min 966.8 ± 164.0 722.4 ± 102.5 < 0.001 Weight gain during pregnancy, kg 13.5 ± 7.5 14.7 ± 7.9 0.02 Weight gain during pregnancy/prepregnancy weight 0.22 ± 0.13 0.25 ± 0.15 < 0.001 Cesarean delivery, no. (%) 127 (35.2) 177 (27.9) 0.02 Note: SD = standard deviation.
*Data missing for some variables.
†Except where noted otherwise.
‡Classified with the cut-off values derived from the Born in Bradford cohort.26 Participants with a history of diabetes were excluded.
Risk factor OR (95% CI) from multivariable model Prevalence, % Population attributable risk % (95% CI)* Age 32-43 yr v. < 29 yr 2.10 (1.51 to 2.91) 36.4 24.5 (15.2 to 33.7) Age 29-31 yr v. < 29 yr 1.34 (0.94 to 1.90) 28.6 7.0 (-1.1 to 15.0) Family history of diabetes mellitus 1.70 (1.29 to 2.23) 42.1 21.6 (11.4 to 31.8) Low diet quality 1.62 (1.20 to 2.19) 26.7 12.8 (5.2 to 20.4) Body mass index > 23 v. ≤ 23 1.80 (1.37 to 2.37) 51.5 28.1 (16.6 to 39.5) Low diet quality and/or body mass index > 23 63.5 37.3 (25.9 to 48.7) All factors 65.3 (55.6 to 75.1) Note: CI = confidence interval, OR = odds ratio.
*Continuous factors needed to be categorized: age was divided into tertiles, and body mass index was split into 3 categories (< 18.5, 18.5-23 and > 23); the highest category was selected as it was significantly different from the lower categories.
Characteristic Mean ± SE*† p value Gestational diabetes*
n = 359No gestational diabetes
n = 630Male, no. (%) 188 (52.4) 304 (48.2) Gestational age, wk 38.8 ± 1.6 39.3 ± 1.4 Size for gestational age,‡ no. (%) Large 48 (13.4) 55 (8.7) 0.02 Average 277 (77.2) 493 (78.2) Small 24 (6.7) 64 (10.2) Unknown 10 (2.8) 18 (2.8) Birth weight, g 3267 ± 23 3181 ± 17 0.005 Length, cm 51.0 ± 0.1 51.1 ± 0.1 0.7 Waist circumference, cm 30.8 ± 0.1 30.3 ± 0.1 0.009 Head circumference, cm 34.1 ± 0.1 34.0 ± 0.1 0.4 Sum of skinfold measurements, mm 11.7 ± 0.1 11.2 ± 0.1 0.007 Triceps skinfold thickness, mm 6.1 ± 0.1 5.9 ± 0.1 0.05 Subscapular skinfold thickness, mm 5.5 ± 0.1 5.2 ± 0.1 0.002 Ponderal index§ 24.8 ± 0.2 24.0 ± 0.1 0.002 Placental weight, g 503.2 ± 8.1 474.9 ± 5.8 0.007 Cord blood glucose level, mmol/L 4.1 ± 0.1 4.1 ± 0.0 0.9 Cord blood insulin (log) level, pmol/L 76.3 ± 3.8 61.6 ± 2.8 0.002 Glucose/insulin ratio, mmol/pmol¶ 0.092 ± 0.009 0.129 ± 0.006 0.001 Note: SE = standard error.
*Except where noted otherwise.
†Adjusted for gestational age, sex and insulin use by mother during pregnancy.
‡Determined from gestational age and sex-specific percentiles from study data.
§Birth weight (kg)/birth length (m3).
¶Non log insulin level used.
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